News
Quanta Magazine
Published
2 years agoon
By
Robert King![](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Gene-Transfer-Hotspots_1200_Social.webp.webp)
When Genes Wander
Horizontal transfer is commonplace in bacteria. The teeming single-celled organisms that populate nearly every cranny on the planet pick up genes from their environment as easily as a lint brush picks up cat hair. That’s one reason why bacterial resistance to antibiotics is widespread: Protective genes are passed around easily, and natural selection ensures that the resistant bacteria outcompete their neighbors and pass their genes on to the next generation. Bacteria swap genes so readily that some scientists have even proposed that bacteria form a web of related life rather than a branching family tree.
The cells of eukaryotic organisms like humans, frogs and snakes, however, are different. Their cell nucleus usually seems like a fortress for protecting the genome. The DNA is carefully coiled up and stored in that citadel’s library, with enzymes calling forth only the genes they need to examine at any given time. The cell is loaded with fail-safes to prevent damage to its DNA and to repair wear and tear. If the genome is like a priceless illuminated manuscript, its librarians carry swords.
Nevertheless, examples of horizontal gene transfers involving eukaryotes keep trickling into the scientific literature. Herrings and smelts, unrelated fish that swim in the icy waters of the Arctic, northern Pacific and northern Atlantic oceans, have precisely the same gene for a protein that keeps their blood from freezing; it likely jumped from herrings into smelts. Laurie Graham, a molecular biologist at Queen’s University in Canada, and her colleagues reported it last year; their findings were so counterintuitive that Graham had difficulty getting the work published.
Similarly, the evolutionary biologist Etienne G.J. Danchin and his colleagues at the National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment in France are studying a suite of enzymes that nematode worms got from bacteria. And over 100 gene families appear to have leapt from microbes to plants long ago, wrote Jinling Huang of Eastern Carolina University and colleagues in a paper this year.
There are beautifully clear reasons why evolution smiled on some of these improbable transfers. The fish with the gene don’t freeze. The nematodes’ digestive enzymes enable them to wring more energy from the cell walls of the plants they eat. Because of a cluster of enzymes picked up from bacteria, the hot spring-dwelling red algae studied by the evolutionary biologist Debashish Bhattacharya and his student Julia Van Etten at Rutgers University can survive contact with substances that would otherwise kill them. If a gene boosts survival, it doesn’t take long before the descendants of the first organism to acquire it take over.
Not all these wandering genes, however, necessarily convey an advantage. BovB is a well-known transposon, a scrap of genetic material prone to jumping randomly around the genome. In a way, its jumps from snakes into frogs in Madagascar — however they occurred — are just bizarrely bigger leaps than usual. Moreover, although transposons can have profound effects on genomes, BovB isn’t a gene with a function in the traditional sense; it’s just a bit of DNA that makes copies of itself. Kurabayashi notes that although the possibility that BovB benefited the frogs can’t be ruled out, it’s more likely that BovB persists through its own aggressive success at self-duplication. This may help to explain why it is that when eukaryotes wind up with other organisms’ genetic material, transposons like BovB are often involved.
As strange as it might seem for eukaryotes to pick up genes from bacteria, stranger still is the fact that examples of horizontal gene transfer in the other direction are vastly rarer. For some reason, bacteria don’t want our genes. Eukaryotic genes have structural features that make them less than perfect material for bacteria, but there may be other contributing factors as well.
“Maybe eukaryotes don’t have the genes that bacteria are interested in,” said Patrick Keeling, a biologist at the University of British Columbia who studies horizontal transfers.
Going Viral
Unlike bacteria, viruses have a real knack for picking up genes from their eukaryotic hosts. Viruses, particularly the ones called retroviruses, have the tools for getting into a host’s cells and nuclei, and they are masters of inserting genetic material into host genomes. Up to 8% of the human genome is made up of the leftovers of retroviruses, fragments of long-ago infections in our species’ history.
Sometimes the transfer goes the other way, too. In a paper published in Nature Microbiology last December, Keeling, his collaborator Nicholas Irwin of the University of Oxford and their colleagues performed the first comprehensive analysis of horizontal gene transfers between 201 eukaryotes and 108,842 viruses. They found evidence for more than 6,700 gene transfers, with host-to-virus transfers about twice as common as virus-to-host transfers. They concluded that horizontal gene transfers had been major drivers of evolution on both sides: Viruses often used the eukaryotic genes they acquired to become more effective at infecting their hosts, while eukaryotes sometimes used elements of the viral genes to create novel features or to regulate their metabolisms in new ways.
Findings like these have persuaded some biologists that at least some horizontal gene transfers may be facilitated by viruses. If viruses can pick up genes from their hosts, and if they can leave behind pieces of their genomes, it seems possible that they could also sometimes ferry over genes from the last host they infected, or even one from generations ago, and give them to a new host.
The involvement of viruses could also help to solve another puzzle about horizontal transfers in eukaryotes. For the transfers to occur, the traveling genes need to clear an entire series of hurdles. First they must get from the donor species to the new host species. Then they must get into the nucleus and ensconce themselves in the host genome. But getting into the genome of just any cell won’t do: In multicellular creatures like frogs and herrings, a gene won’t be passed down to the animal’s offspring unless it can sneak into a germline cell — a sperm or an egg.
Viruses might make that series of events more likely. In small organisms like the nematode, Danchin said, the reproductive tract and its germ cells are not far from the intestinal tract, where viruses ingested on food can settle. Because frogs release their eggs and sperm into the open water, those cells are potentially vulnerable to viruses in the environment that could slip in genes.
Even with larger creatures, it might be easier than you think. At this point, it’s still a speculative idea, but “the reproductive tract is full of microbes and viruses,” Danchin said. “We know some viruses infect specifically germ cells.”
Keeling suggests that to understand the mystery of horizontal gene transfer, perhaps we should think of them as ecological consequences of an organism’s behaviors, its neighbors and its environment. If a horizontally transferred gene confers any survival benefit, it’s likely to be highly contingent on the specific scenario in which the recipient of the gene finds itself — an icy sea, a hot spring, an appetizing host plant with tough defenses. “They’re so tied to the ecology where that thing is, but it changes,” he speculated. With the wrong shift in the environment, the transferred gene “is no longer advantageous, and it’s lost.”
Ecological Clues
Horizontal gene transfers in eukaryotes may be happening all the time: in the pond in your backyard, in the soil beneath your feet, in the animals, insects and plants that make up the ecosystem. “I think there is way more transfer than we know,” Bhattacharya said. “We just don’t see them because they are swept out.”
To check how common it is for frogs to have snake BovB, Kurabayashi’s team reached out to their colleagues for samples of frogs from around the world for DNA sequencing. They found that out of 149 species, 50 came back with BovB. The 32 Malagasy frogs that they tested made up less than a quarter of all the species sampled, but 29 of them carried the snake gene — a clear majority of all the transfers found around the world. Moreover, at least two of the frog lineages didn’t acquire BovB until after their ancestors migrated from Africa to Madagascar.
The most interesting thing about the paper, Graham said, “is it’s showing the rate of transfer is not uniform. It varies widely among geographic regions.” If more studies set out with the goal of looking at gene transfer around the globe — seeing whether transfers have happened at different rates in different places — what we find may surprise us. Perhaps geography matters more than we might expect.
Is there something about the environment of Madagascar that makes it a hot spot for gene transfers? No one knows. Kurabayashi says that he and his group suspect most strongly that the snake BovB in Madagascar differs from versions elsewhere in the world in being just a little bit better at getting itself into a new host.
But the abundance of parasites on the island might also be a contributing factor. For example, “in Madagascar, there are lots of leeches,” said Miguel Vences, a herpetologist at the Braunschweig University of Technology in Germany and an author of the new paper. “If you’re in the rainforest, you will notice them.” The bloodsucking creatures feed on many types of animals, including frogs and snakes, and they are not above sampling humans. Vences and his colleagues speculate that leeches may bring blood containing the snake’s jumping gene into the frogs, or perhaps the jumping gene is already in the leech’s own genome from previous contacts with snakes. Then maybe an unidentified virus does the rest.
Unfortunately, it isn’t easy to prove or disprove scenarios describing how such horizontal transfers might have occurred. Without selection to preserve DNA sequences, they tend to mutate and get scrambled over long stretches of time, erasing the molecular evidence of a transfer. And if a virus is involved in the transfer, it may leave very little evidence in the first place, Graham said. Researchers might therefore almost need to catch a genetic jump in the act to know how it is happening.
Bhattacharya is in the early stages of a project aiming to do just that. In the hot springs at Lemonade Creek in Yellowstone National Park, he and his colleagues are looking for signs of transfers that may still be in the process of taking hold. They are studying the DNA of red algae that have picked up genes from bacteria that also live in the springs, genes that bear only small differences from the originals. “We’re not talking about millions of years ago,” said Bhattacharya. “We’re talking about DNA that’s highly similar, that coexists in two different domains of life, in the same environment.”
If the scientists find that algae in nearby springs lack any of these transferred genes, then they may be witnessing the beginning of a ripple of genetic change moving outward through the algae, from one neighboring spring to the next. Each new hot pool may be an island on the brink of a transformation.
\r\n // Define dataLayer and the gtag function.\r\n window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || [];\r\n function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);}\r\n\r\n // Default ad_storage to ‘denied’.\r\n gtag(‘consent’, ‘default’, {\r\n ‘ad_storage’: ‘denied’\r\n });\r\n\u003c\/script>\r\n\u003c\!– Google Tag Manager –>\r\n\u003cscript>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({‘gtm.start’:\r\nnew Date().getTime(),event:’gtm.js’});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],\r\nj=d.createElement(s),dl=l!=’dataLayer’?’&l=”+l:”‘;j.async=true;j.src=\r\n’ End Google Tag Manager –>\r\n\u003c\!– Google Tag Manager (noscript) –>\r\n\u003cnoscript>\u003ciframe src=\” width=\”0\” style=\”display:none;visibility:hidden\”>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/noscript>\r\n\u003c\!– End Google Tag Manager (noscript) –>\r\n\u003cscript>\r\nfunction getCookie(name) {\r\n let value = \”; \” + document.cookie;\r\n var parts = value.split(\”; \” + name + \”=\”);\r\n if (parts.length === 2) return parts.pop().split(\”;\”).shift();\r\n}\r\n\r\nif(getCookie(‘acceptedPolicy’)) {\r\n// google analytics\r\n(function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i[‘GoogleAnalyticsObject’]=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){\r\n(i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o),\r\nm=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m)\r\n})(window,document,’script’,’ ‘UA-8526335-13’, ‘auto’);\r\nga(‘set’, ‘forceSSL’, true);\r\nga(‘require’, ‘displayfeatures’);\r\nga(‘send’,’pageview’);\r\n\r\n// facebook pixel\r\n!function(f,b,e,v,n,t,s)\r\n{if(f.fbq)return;n=f.fbq=function()\r\n{n.callMethod? n.callMethod.apply(n,arguments):n.queue.push(arguments)}\r\n;\r\nif(!f._fbq)f._fbq=n;n.push=n;n.loaded=!0;n.version=’2.0′;\r\nn.queue=[];t=b.createElement(e);t.async=!0;\r\nt.src=v;s=b.getElementsByTagName(e)[0];\r\ns.parentNode.insertBefore(t,s)}(window,document,’script’,\r\n’ ‘190747804793608’); \r\nfbq(‘track’, ‘PageView’);\r\n\r\n// chartbeat\r\nvar _sf_async_config = { uid: 65564, domain: ‘quantamagazine.org’, useCanonical: true };(function() {function loadChartbeat(){ window._sf_endpt = (new Date()).getTime(); var e = document.createElement(‘script’); e.setAttribute(‘language’, ‘javascript’); e.setAttribute(‘type’, ‘text/javascript’); e.setAttribute(‘src’,’//static.chartbeat.com/js/chartbeat.js’); document.body.appendChild(e); };var oldonload = window.onload;window.onload = (typeof window.onload != ‘function’) ?loadChartbeat : function(){ oldonload(); loadChartbeat(); };})();\r\n\r\n// parsley\r\nconst head = document.getElementsByTagName(‘head’)[0];\r\nconst parsleyScript = document.createElement(\”script\”);\r\nparsleyScript.type = \”text/javascript\”;\r\nparsleyScript.src = \”//cdn.parsely.com/keys/quantamagazine.org/p.js\”;\r\nparsleyScript.id = \”parsley-cfg\”;\r\n// end parsley\r\n\r\n//smartlook\r\n window.smartlook||(function(d) {\r\n var o=smartlook=function(){ o.api.push(arguments)},h=d.getElementsByTagName(‘head’)[0];\r\n var c=d.createElement(‘script’);o.api=new Array();c.async=true;c.type=”text/javascript”;\r\n c.charset=”utf-8″;c.src=” })(document);\r\n smartlook(‘init’, ‘3bac9c73fbc7f7f1c527d035a117e2b66f7c3e30’);\r\n\r\n// Google Ads conversions\r\n window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || [];\r\n function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);}\r\n gtag(‘js’, new Date());\r\n\r\n gtag(‘config’, ‘AW-10788252298’);\r\n\r\n} else {\r\n(function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i[‘GoogleAnalyticsObject’]=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){\r\n(i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o),\r\nm=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m)\r\n})(window,document,’script’,’ ‘UA-8526335-13’, { storage: ‘none’ });\r\nga(‘set’, ‘anonymizeIp’, true);\r\nga(‘set’, ‘forceSSL’, true);\r\nga(‘require’, ‘displayfeatures’);\r\nga(‘send’,’pageview’);\r\n}\r\n\u003c\/script>\r\n”,”google_analytics”:null,”tracking_scripts_no_cookie”:null,”google_analytics_no_cookie”:null,”popular_searches”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.0″,”typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.1″,”typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.2″,”typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.3″,”typename”:”PopularSearch”}],”search_topics”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”}],”search_sections”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.0″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.1″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.2″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.3″,”typename”:”Term”}],”search_authors”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:38171″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:28087″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:29794″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:39302″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:56″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:47249″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:29458″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:73″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:39164″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:59″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:8728″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:11648″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:42689″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:95″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15493″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:450″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:36490″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:16315″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:2752″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15492″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:68″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:62″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13684″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13691″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:50″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15142″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:8084″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:742″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:11543″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:57″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:7262″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:70″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:19918″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13695″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:32676″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13724″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:26310″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:30207″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:19266″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13251″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:17000″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:17149″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:5279″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:58″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:32612″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:27534″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:25173″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:64″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:47″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:14784″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:98″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:5830″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:6793″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:75″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:52″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:69″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:77″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:19092″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:20557″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:66″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:46418″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:85″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:37141″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:44758″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:12170″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:32″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:51″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:44787″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:72″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:16475″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:91″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:10351″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:31716″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:1241″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:8463″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:49″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:16815″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:67″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:37462″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:87″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:36139″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:20556″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:90″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:39551″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:27374″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:40″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:45758″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:38413″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:12570″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:38699″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:23451″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:79″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:38″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:60″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:2333″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:3569″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:414″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:20495″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:17147″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:30953″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:32437″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:38705″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:40613″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:7186″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:14093″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:34″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:23″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:74″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:19093″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:1472″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:6476″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:42264″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:10″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:37605″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:43298″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:37428″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:19962″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:24″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:1816″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:84″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:55″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:31″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:24011″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:100″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:2784″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:26114″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:9412″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:820″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:1666″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:20950″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:48″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:80″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15681″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:24577″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:78″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:23845″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:83″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:35441″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:76″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15680″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:7239″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:44197″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:65″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:5944″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:61″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:63″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:26311″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:71″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:17148″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13356″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:17150″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:39768″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:2960″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:14785″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:3″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:54″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:88″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:12964″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:53″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:86″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:3244″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:89″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15913″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:42263″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:45757″,”typename”:”AuthorList”}],”address_to_editor”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.0″,”typename”:”Editor”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.1″,”typename”:”Editor”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.2″,”typename”:”Editor”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.3″,”typename”:”Editor”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.4″,”typename”:”Editor”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.5″,”typename”:”Editor”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.6″,”typename”:”Editor”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.7″,”typename”:”Editor”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.8″,”typename”:”Editor”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.9″,”typename”:”Editor”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.10″,”typename”:”Editor”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.11″,”typename”:”Editor”}]},”$ROOT_QUERY.options”:{“acf”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf”,”typename”:”ThemeOptions”},”__typename”:”Options”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({\”slug\”:\”how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\”,\”type\”:\”\”}).data.0.acf”:{“custom_page_colors”:””,”page_accent_color”:null,”page_text_color”:null,”page_background_color”:null,”header_type”:”default”,”header_gradient_color”:null,”header_gradient_opacity”:null,”header_solid_colors”:””,”header_solid_primary_color”:null,”header_solid_secondary_color”:null,”header_solid_hover_color”:null,”header_transparent_colors”:null,”header_transparent_primary_color”:null,”header_transparent_secondary_color”:null,”header_transparent_hover_color”:null,”__typename”:”ACFFields”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({\”slug\”:\”how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\”,\”type\”:\”\”}).data.0″:{“acf”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({\”slug\”:\”how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\”,\”type\”:\”\”}).data.0.acf”,”typename”:”ACFFields”},”__typename”:”Post”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({\”slug\”:\”how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\”,\”type\”:\”\”})”:{“data”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({\”slug\”:\”how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\”,\”type\”:\”\”}).data.0″,”typename”:”Post”}],”__typename”:”PostPageArchive”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPageMeta({\”slug\”:\”how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\”,\”type\”:\”\”})”:{“redirect_path”:null,”meta”:”\u003cmeta name=\”description\” content=\”The discovery of a hot spot for horizontal gene transfer draws attention to the possible roles of parasites and ecology in such changes.\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”og:image\” content=\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”og:image:width\” content=\”1200\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”og:image:height\” content=\”630\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”og:image:alt\” content=\”A snake and two frogs staring at one another across a rock.\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”og:locale\” content=\”en_US\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”og:type\” content=\”article\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”og:title\” content=\”How Genes Can Leap From Snakes to Frogs | Quanta Magazine\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”og:description\” content=\”The discovery of a hot spot for horizontal gene transfer draws attention to the possible roles of parasites and ecology in such changes.\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”og:url\” content=\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”og:site_name\” content=\”Quanta Magazine\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”og:updated_time\” content=\”2022-10-27T13:58+00:00\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”article:publisher\” content=\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”fb:app_id\” content=\”533309373681765\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”article:published_time\” content=\”2022-10-27T13:58+00:00\” />\n\u003cmeta property=\”article:modified_time\” content=\”2022-10-27T13:58+00:00\” />\n\u003cmeta name=\”twitter:card\” content=\”summary_large_image\” />\n\u003cmeta name=\”twitter:site\” content=\”@QuantaMagazine\” />\n\u003cmeta name=\”twitter:title\” content=\”How Genes Can Leap From Snakes to Frogs | Quanta Magazine\” />\n\u003cmeta name=\”twitter:description\” content=\”The discovery of a hot spot for horizontal gene transfer draws attention to the possible roles of parasites and ecology in such changes.\” />\n\u003cmeta name=\”twitter:image\” content=\” />\n\u003cmeta name=\”twitter:image:width\” content=\”1200\” />\n\u003cmeta name=\”twitter:image:height\” content=\”630\” />\n\u003cmeta name=\”twitter:image:alt\” content=\”A snake and two frogs staring at one another across a rock.\” />\n\u003clink rel=\”canonical\” href=\” />\n\u003cscript type=\”application/ld+json\”>{\”@context\”:\”https://schema.org\”,\”@type\”:\”BreadcrumbList\”,\”itemListElement\”:[{\”@type\”:\”ListItem\”,\”position\”:1,\”item\”:{\”@id\”:\”https://www.quantamagazine.org/\”,\”name\”:\”Quanta Magazine | Science and Math News\”}},{\”@type\”:\”ListItem\”,\”position\”:2,\”item\”:{\”@id\”:\” News, Interviews and Columns From Quanta Magazine\”}},{\”@type\”:\”ListItem\”,\”position\”:3,\”item\”:{\”@id\”:\”,\”name\”:\”How Genes Can Leap From Snakes to Frogs\”}}]}\u003c\/script>\n”,”__typename”:”PageMeta”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.social_media_links.0″:{“type”:”facebook”,”label”:”Facebook”,”url”:” Joy of Why”,”slug”:”the-joy-of-why”,”description”:”The mathematician and author Steven Strogatz interviews leading researchers about the great scientific and mathematical questions of our time.”,”featured_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.0.featured_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”square_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.0.square_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”subscribe_itunes_link”:” Science Podcast”,”slug”:”quanta-podcast”,”description”:”Susan Valot narrates in-depth news episodes based on \u003ci>Quanta Magazine\u003c/i>’s articles about mathematics, physics, biology and computer science. “,”featured_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.1.featured_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”square_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.1.square_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”subscribe_itunes_link”:” human figure’s brain with a “low battery” icon on it.”,”caption”:””,”url”:” Joy of x”,”slug”:”the-joy-of-x”,”description”:”The acclaimed mathematician and author Steven Strogatz interviews some of the world’s leading scientists about their lives and work.”,”featured_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.2.featured_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”square_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.2.square_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”subscribe_itunes_link”:” holes”,”label”:”Black Holes”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.3″:{“term”:”evolution”,”label”:”Evolution”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0″:{“type”:”Tag”,”label”:”Podcasts”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0.tag”:{“name”:”Quanta Podcast”,”slug”:”quanta-podcast”,”term_id”:”552″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0.category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1″:{“type”:”Tag”,”label”:”Columns”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1.tag”:{“name”:”Quantized Columns”,”slug”:”quantized”,”term_id”:”551″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1.category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2″:{“type”:”Series”,”label”:”Series”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2.tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2.category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3″:{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Interviews”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3.tag”:{“name”:”Q&A”,”slug”:”qa”,”term_id”:”567″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3.category”:{“name”:”Q&A”,”slug”:”qa”,”term_id”:”176″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4″:{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Multimedia”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4.tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4.category”:{“name”:”Multimedia”,”slug”:”multimedia”,”term_id”:”43″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5″:{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Puzzles”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5.tag”:{“name”:”puzzles”,”slug”:”puzzles”,”term_id”:”542″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5.category”:{“name”:”Puzzles”,”slug”:”puzzles”,”term_id”:”546″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6″:{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Blog Posts”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6.tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6.category”:{“name”:”Abstractions blog”,”slug”:”abstractions”,”term_id”:”619″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7″:{“type”:”news”,”label”:”News Articles”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7.tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7.category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8″:{“type”:”videos”,”label”:”Videos”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8.tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8.category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.0″:{“name”:”Mathematics”,”slug”:”mathematics”,”term_id”:”188″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.1″:{“name”:”Physics”,”slug”:”physics”,”term_id”:”189″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.2″:{“name”:”Biology”,”slug”:”biology”,”term_id”:”191″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.3″:{“name”:”Computer Science”,”slug”:”computer-science”,”term_id”:”190″,”__typename”:”Term”},”AuthorList:38171″:{“id”:”38171″,”name”:”Adam Becker”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:28087″:{“id”:”28087″,”name”:”Adam Mann”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:29794″:{“id”:”29794″,”name”:”Alex Kontorovich”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:39302″:{“id”:”39302″,”name”:”Alexander Hellemans”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:56″:{“id”:”56″,”name”:”Alla Katsnelson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:47249″:{“id”:”47249″,”name”:”Allison Parshall”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:29458″:{“id”:”29458″,”name”:”Allison Whitten”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:73″:{“id”:”73″,”name”:”Amanda Gefter”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:39164″:{“id”:”39164″,”name”:”Ana Kova”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:59″:{“id”:”59″,”name”:”Andreas von Bubnoff”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:8728″:{“id”:”8728″,”name”:”Anil Ananthaswamy”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:11648″:{“id”:”11648″,”name”:”Ann Finkbeiner”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:42689″:{“id”:”42689″,”name”:”Annie Melchor”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:95″:{“id”:”95″,”name”:”Ariel Bleicher”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15493″:{“id”:”15493″,”name”:”Ashley Smart”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:450″:{“id”:”450″,”name”:”Ashley Yeager”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:36490″:{“id”:”36490″,”name”:”Ben Brubaker”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:16315″:{“id”:”16315″,”name”:”Bill Andrews”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:2752″:{“id”:”2752″,”name”:”Bob Henderson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15492″:{“id”:”15492″,”name”:”Brendan Z. Foster”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:68″:{“id”:”68″,”name”:”Brooke Borel”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:62″:{“id”:”62″,”name”:”Carl Zimmer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13684″:{“id”:”13684″,”name”:”Caroline Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13691″:{“id”:”13691″,”name”:”Caroline Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:50″:{“id”:”50″,”name”:”Carrie Arnold”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15142″:{“id”:”15142″,”name”:”Chanda Prescod-Weinstein”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:8084″:{“id”:”8084″,”name”:”Charlie Wood”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:742″:{“id”:”742″,”name”:”Christie Wilcox”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:11543″:{“id”:”11543″,”name”:”Claudia Dreifus”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:57″:{“id”:”57″,”name”:”Courtney Humphries”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:7262″:{“id”:”7262″,”name”:”Dalmeet Singh Chawla”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:70″:{“id”:”70″,”name”:”Dan Falk”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:19918″:{“id”:”19918″,”name”:”Dana Najjar”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13695″:{“id”:”13695″,”name”:”Daniel Garisto”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:32676″:{“id”:”32676″,”name”:”Daniel S. Freed”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13724″:{“id”:”13724″,”name”:”David H. Freedman”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:26310″:{“id”:”26310″,”name”:”David S. Richeson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:30207″:{“id”:”30207″,”name”:”David Tse”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:19266″:{“id”:”19266″,”name”:”Devin Powell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13251″:{“id”:”13251″,”name”:”Diana Kwon”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:17000″:{“id”:”17000″,”name”:”Elena Renken”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:17149″:{“id”:”17149″,”name”:”Elizabeth Landau”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:5279″:{“id”:”5279″,”name”:”Elizabeth Preston”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:58″:{“id”:”58″,”name”:”Elizabeth Svoboda”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:32612″:{“id”:”32612″,”name”:”Ellen Horne”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:27534″:{“id”:”27534″,”name”:”Emily Buder”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:25173″:{“id”:”25173″,”name”:”Emily Levesque”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:64″:{“id”:”64″,”name”:”Emily Singer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:47″:{“id”:”47″,”name”:”Erica Klarreich”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:14784″:{“id”:”14784″,”name”:”Erika K. Carlson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:98″:{“id”:”98″,”name”:”Esther Landhuis”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:5830″:{“id”:”5830″,”name”:”Eva Silverstein”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:6793″:{“id”:”6793″,”name”:”Evelyn Lamb”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:75″:{“id”:”75″,”name”:”Ferris Jabr”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:52″:{“id”:”52″,”name”:”Frank Wilczek”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:69″:{“id”:”69″,”name”:”Gabriel Popkin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:77″:{“id”:”77″,”name”:”George Musser”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:19092″:{“id”:”19092″,”name”:”Grant Sanderson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:20557″:{“id”:”20557″,”name”:”Howard Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:66″:{“id”:”66″,”name”:”Ingrid Daubechies”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:46418″:{“id”:”46418″,”name”:”Ingrid Wickelgren”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:85″:{“id”:”85″,”name”:”Ivan Amato”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:37141″:{“id”:”37141″,”name”:”Jake Buehler”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:44758″:{“id”:”44758″,”name”:”James Dinneen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:12170″:{“id”:”12170″,”name”:”Janna Levin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:32″:{“id”:”32″,”name”:”Jeanette Kazmierczak”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:51″:{“id”:”51″,”name”:”Jennifer Ouellette”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:44787″:{“id”:”44787″,”name”:”Joanna Thompson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:72″:{“id”:”72″,”name”:”John Pavlus”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:16475″:{“id”:”16475″,”name”:”John Preskill”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:91″:{“id”:”91″,”name”:”John Rennie”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:10351″:{“id”:”10351″,”name”:”Jonathan Lambert”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:31716″:{“id”:”31716″,”name”:”Jonathan O’Callaghan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:1241″:{“id”:”1241″,”name”:”Jordana Cepelewicz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:8463″:{“id”:”8463″,”name”:”Joshua Roebke”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:49″:{“id”:”49″,”name”:”Joshua Sokol”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:16815″:{“id”:”16815″,”name”:”jye”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:67″:{“id”:”67″,”name”:”K.C. Cole”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:37462″:{“id”:”37462″,”name”:”Karmela Padavic-Callaghan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:87″:{“id”:”87″,”name”:”Kat McGowan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:36139″:{“id”:”36139″,”name”:”Katarina Zimmer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:20556″:{“id”:”20556″,”name”:”Katherine Harmon Courage”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:90″:{“id”:”90″,”name”:”Katia Moskvitch”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:39551″:{“id”:”39551″,”name”:”Katie McCormick”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:27374″:{“id”:”27374″,”name”:”Kelsey Houston-Edwards”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:40″:{“id”:”40″,”name”:”Kevin Hartnett”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:45758″:{“id”:”45758″,”name”:”Kristina Armitage”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:38413″:{“id”:”38413″,”name”:”Lakshmi Chandrasekaran”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:12570″:{“id”:”12570″,”name”:”Laura Poppick”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:38699″:{“id”:”38699″,”name”:”Leila Sloman”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:23451″:{“id”:”23451″,”name”:”Liam Drew”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:79″:{“id”:”79″,”name”:”Liz Kruesi”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:38″:{“id”:”38″,”name”:”Lucy Reading-Ikkanda”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:60″:{“id”:”60″,”name”:”Maggie McKee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:2333″:{“id”:”2333″,”name”:”Mallory Locklear”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:3569″:{“id”:”3569″,”name”:”Marcus Woo”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:414″:{“id”:”414″,”name”:”Mark Kim-Mulgrew”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:20495″:{“id”:”20495″,”name”:”Matt Carlstrom”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:17147″:{“id”:”17147″,”name”:”Matthew Hutson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:30953″:{“id”:”30953″,”name”:”Max G. Levy”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:32437″:{“id”:”32437″,”name”:”Max Kozlov”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:38705″:{“id”:”38705″,”name”:”mcho”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:40613″:{“id”:”40613″,”name”:”Melanie Mitchell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:7186″:{“id”:”7186″,”name”:”Melinda Wenner Moyer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:14093″:{“id”:”14093″,”name”:”Michael Harris”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:34″:{“id”:”34″,”name”:”Michael Kranz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:23″:{“id”:”23″,”name”:”Michael Moyer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:74″:{“id”:”74″,”name”:”Michael Nielsen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:19093″:{“id”:”19093″,”name”:”Michele Bannister”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:1472″:{“id”:”1472″,”name”:”Moira Chas”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:6476″:{“id”:”6476″,”name”:”Monique Brouillette”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:42264″:{“id”:”42264″,”name”:”Mordechai Rorvig”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:10″:{“id”:”10″,”name”:”Natalie Wolchover”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:37605″:{“id”:”37605″,”name”:”Nick Thieme”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:43298″:{“id”:”43298″,”name”:”Nicole Yunger Halpern”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:37428″:{“id”:”37428″,”name”:”Nima Arkani-Hamed”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:19962″:{“id”:”19962″,”name”:”Nola Taylor Redd”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:24″:{“id”:”24″,”name”:”Olena Shmahalo”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:1816″:{“id”:”1816″,”name”:”Patrick Honner”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:84″:{“id”:”84″,”name”:”Peter Byrne”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:55″:{“id”:”55″,”name”:”Philip Ball”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:31″:{“id”:”31″,”name”:”Pradeep Mutalik”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:24011″:{“id”:”24011″,”name”:”Puja Changoiwala”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:100″:{“id”:”100″,”name”:”Quanta Magazine”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:2784″:{“id”:”2784″,”name”:”R. Douglas Fields”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:26114″:{“id”:”26114″,”name”:”Rachel Crowell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:9412″:{“id”:”9412″,”name”:”Raleigh McElvery”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:820″:{“id”:”820″,”name”:”Ramin Skibba”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:1666″:{“id”:”1666″,”name”:”Rebecca Boyle”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:20950″:{“id”:”20950″,”name”:”Richard Masland”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:48″:{“id”:”48″,”name”:”Robbert Dijkgraaf”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:80″:{“id”:”80″,”name”:”Roberta Kwok”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15681″:{“id”:”15681″,”name”:”Robin George Andrews”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:24577″:{“id”:”24577″,”name”:”Rodrigo Pérez Ortega”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:78″:{“id”:”78″,”name”:”Sabine Hossenfelder”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:23845″:{“id”:”23845″,”name”:”Samuel Velasco”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:83″:{“id”:”83″,”name”:”Sarah Lewin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:35441″:{“id”:”35441″,”name”:”Scott Aaronson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:76″:{“id”:”76″,”name”:”Sean B. Carroll”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15680″:{“id”:”15680″,”name”:”Sean Carroll”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:7239″:{“id”:”7239″,”name”:”Shannon Hall”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:44197″:{“id”:”44197″,”name”:”Sheon Han”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:65″:{“id”:”65″,”name”:”Siobhan Roberts”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:5944″:{“id”:”5944″,”name”:”Sophia Chen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:61″:{“id”:”61″,”name”:”Steph Yin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:63″:{“id”:”63″,”name”:”Stephanie Bucklin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:26311″:{“id”:”26311″,”name”:”Stephanie DeMarco”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:71″:{“id”:”71″,”name”:”Stephen Ornes”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:17148″:{“id”:”17148″,”name”:”Steve Nadis”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13356″:{“id”:”13356″,”name”:”Steven Strogatz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:17150″:{“id”:”17150″,”name”:”Susan D’Agostino”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:39768″:{“id”:”39768″,”name”:”Tamar Lichter Blanks”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:2960″:{“id”:”2960″,”name”:”Tara C. Smith”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:14785″:{“id”:”14785″,”name”:”Thomas Lewton”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:3″:{“id”:”3″,”name”:”Thomas Lin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:54″:{“id”:”54″,”name”:”Tim Vernimmen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:88″:{“id”:”88″,”name”:”Tom Siegfried”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:12964″:{“id”:”12964″,”name”:”Vanessa Schipani”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:53″:{“id”:”53″,”name”:”Veronique Greenwood”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:86″:{“id”:”86″,”name”:”Virginia Hughes”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:3244″:{“id”:”3244″,”name”:”Viviane Callier”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:89″:{“id”:”89″,”name”:”Wynne Parry”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15913″:{“id”:”15913″,”name”:”XiaoZhi Lim”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:42263″:{“id”:”42263″,”name”:”Yasemin Saplakoglu”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:45757″:{“id”:”45757″,”name”:”Zack Savitsky”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.0″:{“name”:”Bill Andrews – Senior CS Editor”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.1″:{“name”:”Ben Brubaker – Staff CS Writer”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.2″:{“name”:”Matt Carlstrom – Senior Engagement Editor”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.3″:{“name”:”Jordana Cepelewicz – Senior Math Writer”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.4″:{“name”:”Konstantin Kakaes – Senior Math Editor”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.5″:{“name”:”Thomas Lin – Editor in Chief”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.6″:{“name”:”Michael Moyer – Deputy Editor, Physics, Math, CS”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.7″:{“name”:”John Rennie – Deputy Editor, Biology, Podcasts”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.8″:{“name”:”Yasemin Saplakoglu – Staff Biology Writer”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.9″:{“name”:”Samuel Velasco – Art Director”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.10″:{“name”:”Natalie Wolchover – Senior Physics Editor”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.address_to_editor.11″:{“name”:”Charlie Wood – Staff Physics Writer”,”__typename”:”Editor”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”footer\”}).items.0″:{“title”:”About Quanta”,”url”:” Us”,”url”:” & Conditions”,”url”:” Policy”,”url”:” Foundation”,”url”:”http://www.simonsfoundation.org”,”order”:6,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”footer\”})”:{“items”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”footer\”}).items.0″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”footer\”}).items.1″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”footer\”}).items.2″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”footer\”}).items.3″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”footer\”}).items.4″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”footer\”}).items.5″,”typename”:”MenuItem”}],”__typename”:”Menu”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.0″:{“title”:”Physics”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/physics/”,”order”:1,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.1″:{“title”:”Mathematics”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/mathematics/”,”order”:2,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.2″:{“title”:”Biology”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/biology/”,”order”:3,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.3″:{“title”:”Computer Science”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/computer-science/”,”order”:4,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.4″:{“title”:”Topics”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/topics”,”order”:5,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.5″:{“title”:”Archive”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/archive/”,”order”:6,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”})”:{“items”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.0″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.1″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.2″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.3″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.4″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”main-menu\”}).items.5″,”typename”:”MenuItem”}],”__typename”:”Menu”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.0″:{“title”:”Blog”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/abstractions/”,”order”:1,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.1″:{“title”:”Q&A”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/qa/”,”order”:2,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.2″:{“title”:”Columns”,”url”:”/tag/quantized”,”order”:3,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.3″:{“title”:”Puzzles”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/puzzles/”,”order”:4,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.4″:{“title”:”Podcasts”,”url”:”/podcasts/”,”order”:5,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.5″:{“title”:”Videos”,”url”:”/videos”,”order”:6,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.6″:{“title”:”Multimedia”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/multimedia/”,”order”:7,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.7″:{“title”:”About Quanta”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/about/”,”order”:8,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”})”:{“items”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.0″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.1″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.2″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.3″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.4″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.5″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.6″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({\”slug\”:\”secondary-menu\”}).items.7″,”typename”:”MenuItem”}],”__typename”:”Menu”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({\”slug\”:\”how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\”})”:{“type”:”post”,”meta”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({\”slug\”:\”how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\”}).meta”,”typename”:”PageData”},”data”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”Post:120104″,”typename”:”Post”}],”__typename”:”PostPageArchive”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({\”slug\”:\”how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\”}).meta”:{“title”:”How Genes Can Leap From Snakes to Frogs | Quanta Magazine”,”max_num_pages”:0,”found_posts”:0,”extra_term”:””,”author”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”Author:null”,”typename”:”Author”},”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”Term:null”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”Term:null”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”PageData”},”Author:null”:{“id”:null,”name”:null,”link”:null,”description”:null,”url”:null,”public_email”:null,”facebook”:null,”twitter”:null,”instagram”:null,”acf”:null,”__typename”:”Author”},”Term:null”:{“id”:null,”slug”:null,”name”:null,”link”:null,”description”:null,”image”:””,”__typename”:”Term”},”Post:120104″:{“id”:”120104″,”title”:”How Genes Can Leap From Snakes to Frogs”,”excerpt”:”\u003cp>The discovery of a hot spot for horizontal gene transfer draws attention to the possible roles of parasites and ecology in such changes.\u003c/p>\n”,”link”:” https://www.quantamagazine.org/?p=120104″,”date”:”2022-10-27T09:58:50″,”featured_media_image”:null,”authors”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:120104.authors.0″,”typename”:”Author”}],”tags”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:120104.tags.0″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:120104.tags.1″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:120104.tags.2″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:120104.tags.3″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:120104.tags.4″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:120104.tags.5″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:120104.tags.6″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:120104.tags.7″,”typename”:”Term”}],”podcast”:null,”acf”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf”,”typename”:”ACFFields”},”__typename”:”Post”,”status”:”publish”,”content”:””,”categories”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”Term:191″,”typename”:”Term”}],”attachments”:null,”series_prev”:null,”series_next”:null,”next”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.next”,”typename”:”PostPageArchive”}},”Post:120104.authors.0″:{“name”:”Veronique Greenwood”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/authors/veronique-greenwood/”,”__typename”:”Author”,”acf”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.authors.0.acf”,”typename”:”AuthorACF”}},”Post:120104.tags.0″:{“slug”:”animals”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”animals”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/animals/”},”Post:120104.tags.1″:{“slug”:”bacteria”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”bacteria”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/bacteria/”},”Post:120104.tags.2″:{“slug”:”biology”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”biology”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/biology/”},”Post:120104.tags.3″:{“slug”:”dna”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”DNA”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/dna/”},”Post:120104.tags.4″:{“slug”:”ecology”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”ecology”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/ecology/”},”Post:120104.tags.5″:{“slug”:”evolution”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”evolution”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/evolution/”},”Post:120104.tags.6″:{“slug”:”genes”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”genes”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/genes/”},”Post:120104.tags.7″:{“slug”:”genomics”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”genomics”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/genomics/”},”$Post:120104.acf”:{“featured_block_title”:””,”kicker”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.kicker”,”typename”:”Term”},”featured_image_default”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.featured_image_default”,”typename”:”Image”},”featured_image_square”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.featured_image_square”,”typename”:”Image”},”featured_image_full_width”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.featured_image_full_width”,”typename”:”Image”},”featured_image_gif”:false,”featured_video”:”false”,”full_page_interactive”:false,”podcast_publish_date”:””,”__typename”:”ACFFields”,”interactive_type”:null,”iframe_url”:null,”return_cursor”:null,”exclude_blurb”:null,”interactive_html”:null,”interactive_css”:null,”interactive_js”:null,”interactive_blurb”:null,”related_article”:null,”modules”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.0″,”typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.1″,”typename”:”ACFContent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.2″,”typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.3″,”typename”:”ACFContent”}],”template”:”article”,”subtitle”:”The discovery of a hot spot for horizontal gene transfer draws attention to the possible roles of parasites and ecology in such changes.”,”title_layout”:”default”,”title_background_type”:null,”title_background_image”:null,”title_background_video”:null,”title_background_attribution”:null,”title_background_image_gif”:null,”title_overlay_enable”:null,”title_overlay_color”:null,”title_overlay_opacity”:null,”title_text_color”:null,”featured_image_attribution”:”\u003cp>Fahmi Bhs\u003c/p>\n”,”featured_overlay_enable”:”false”,”featured_overlay_color”:null,”featured_overlay_opacity”:null,”series”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.series”,”typename”:”Term”},”intro_content”:null,”make_image_full_width”:null,”hide_ad_on_post”:false},”$Post:120104.acf.kicker”:{“name”:”genomics”,”link”:” snake and two frogs staring at one another across a rock.”,”caption”:””,”url”:” snake and two frogs staring at one another across a rock.”,”caption”:””,”url”:” snake and two frogs staring at one another across a rock.”,”caption”:””,”url”:” Writer”,”avatar”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.authors.0.acf.avatar”,”typename”:”Image”},”__typename”:”AuthorACF”},”$Post:120104.authors.0.acf.avatar”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:” Bhs\u003c/p>\n”,”caption”:”\u003cp>A gene that originated in snakes has repeatedly jumped the species barrier into frogs around the world. Researchers are trying to understand why it happened in Madagascar far more often than anywhere else.\u003c/p>\n”,”mobile_comp_caption”:””,”mobile_comp_attribution”:””,”sets”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.0.sets.0″,”typename”:”ImageSet”}],”__typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},”$Post:120104.acf.modules.0.sets.0″:{“settings”:””,”image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.0.sets.0.image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.0.sets.0.mobile_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_side_margins”:false,”mobile_width_constraint”:””,”mobile_caption”:””,”mobile_attribution”:””,”zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.0.sets.0.zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”zoom_caption”:””,”zoom_attribution”:””,”mobile_zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.0.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_zoom_caption”:””,”mobile_zoom_attribution”:””,”external_link”:””,”__typename”:”ImageSet”},”$Post:120104.acf.modules.0.sets.0.image”:{“alt”:”A snake and two frogs staring at one another across a rock.”,”caption”:””,”url”:” on a leaf in the rainforest, the tiny golden mantella frog harbors a secret. It shares that secret with the fork-tongued frog, the reed frog and myriad other frogs in the hills and forests of the island nation of Madagascar, as well as with the boas and other snakes that prey on them. On this island, many of whose animal species occur nowhere else, geneticists recently made a surprising discovery: Sprinkled through the genomes of the frogs is a gene, \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em>, that seemingly came from snakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After poring over genomes from frog and snake species around the world, the scientists reported in April in \u003ca href=\” paper\u003c/a> in \u003cem>Molecular Biology and Evolution\u003c/em> that this gene has somehow traveled from snakes to frogs at least 50 times all over the planet. But in Madagascar it has inserted itself into frogs with startling promiscuity: 91% of the frog species sampled there have it. Something seems to make Madagascar an exceptionally conducive place for the gene to get mobile.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When \u003ca href=\” Kurabayashi\u003c/a>, an associate professor at the Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology and the senior author of the new paper, first saw the snake version of the gene in frogs, he was puzzled. He asked a colleague who specializes in genomics about it, and the colleague immediately shouted, “It must be horizontal transfer!” — the transfer of a gene from one species to another, in contrast to the vertical inheritance of genes by a child from a parent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That outburst sent Kurabayashi on the trail of a phenomenon once thought to be exceedingly rare, though the rise of better genomic sequencing has biologists reevaluating that opinion. And this new paper, which shows that the horizontal transfer of genes may be more likely in some places than others, complicates the story even more. It suggests that when seeking explanations for horizontal transfers, researchers may need to look beyond simple genetic mechanisms to the ecological contexts in which species live. Genomicists are still struggling to understand how common or rare horizontal transfers are in complex organisms, but some places, like Madagascar, may be hot spots for them.\u003c/p>\n”,”fadein”:false,”__typename”:”ACFContent”},”$Post:120104.acf.modules.2″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”image_component”,”layout”:”medium”,”settings”:””,”attribution”:”\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\”mw-mmv-source-author\”>\u003cspan class=\”mw-mmv-author\”>(from left) Bernard Dupont; reptiles4all; Vladimir Wrangel\u003cbr />\n\u003c/span>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n”,”caption”:”\u003cp>Researchers suspect that the version of the \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em> gene found in boas (center) and other snakes in Madagascar may be particularly adept at making horizontal transfers. The painted reed frog (left) and the golden mantella frog (right) are two of the many species of frogs that have acquired \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n”,”mobile_comp_caption”:””,”mobile_comp_attribution”:””,”sets”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.2.sets.0″,”typename”:”ImageSet”}],”__typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},”$Post:120104.acf.modules.2.sets.0″:{“settings”:””,”image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.2.sets.0.image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.2.sets.0.mobile_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_side_margins”:false,”mobile_width_constraint”:””,”mobile_caption”:”\u003cp>Researchers suspect that the version of the \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em> gene found in boas (center) and other snakes in Madagascar may be particularly adept at making horizontal transfers. The painted reed frog (top) and the golden mantella frog (bottom) are two of the many species of frogs that have acquired \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n”,”mobile_attribution”:”\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\”mw-mmv-source-author\”>\u003cspan class=\”mw-mmv-author\”>(from top) Bernard Dupont; reptiles4all; Vladimir Wrangel\u003cbr />\n\u003c/span>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n”,”zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.2.sets.0.zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”zoom_caption”:””,”zoom_attribution”:””,”mobile_zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.acf.modules.2.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_zoom_caption”:””,”mobile_zoom_attribution”:””,”external_link”:””,”__typename”:”ImageSet”},”$Post:120104.acf.modules.2.sets.0.image”:{“alt”:”Head and front half of a Malagasy boa. Separate images of the golden mantella frog on a rock and the painted reed frog on a leaf.”,”caption”:””,”url”:” and front half of a Malagasy boa. Separate images of the golden mantella frog on a rock and the painted reed frog on a leaf.”,”caption”:””,”url”:” Genes Wander\u003c/strong>\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>Horizontal transfer is commonplace in bacteria. The teeming single-celled organisms that populate nearly every cranny on the planet pick up genes from their environment as easily as a lint brush picks up cat hair. That’s one reason why bacterial resistance to antibiotics is widespread: Protective genes are passed around easily, and natural selection ensures that the resistant bacteria outcompete their neighbors and pass their genes on to the next generation. Bacteria swap genes so readily that some scientists have even proposed that bacteria form \u003ca href=\” web of related life\u003c/a> rather than a branching family tree.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The cells of eukaryotic organisms like humans, frogs and snakes, however, are different. Their cell nucleus usually seems like a fortress for protecting the genome. The DNA is carefully coiled up and stored in that citadel’s library, with enzymes calling forth only the genes they need to examine at any given time. The cell is loaded with fail-safes to prevent damage to its DNA and to repair wear and tear. If the genome is like a priceless illuminated manuscript, its librarians carry swords.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nevertheless, examples of horizontal gene transfers involving eukaryotes keep trickling into the scientific literature. Herrings and smelts, unrelated fish that swim in the icy waters of the Arctic, northern Pacific and northern Atlantic oceans, have \u003ca href=\” the same gene\u003c/a> for a protein that keeps their blood from freezing; it likely jumped from herrings into smelts. \u003ca href=\” Graham\u003c/a>, a molecular biologist at Queen’s University in Canada, and her colleagues reported it last year; their findings were so counterintuitive that Graham had difficulty getting the work published.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv id=’component-635a8e9162170′ class=””>\u003cscript type=\”text/template\”>{\”type\”:\”Image\”,\”id\”:\”component-635a8e9162170\”,\”data\”:{\”id\”:120181,\”src\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/herring-smelt-diptych-1.webp\”,\”alt\”:\”Diptych of a herring and a smelt swimming in the open water.\”,\”class\”:\”\”,\”width\”:920,\”height\”:920,\”mobileSrc\”:false,\”zoomSrc\”:false,\”mobileZoomSrc\”:false,\”align\”:\”align=\\\”right\\\”\”,\”wrapper_width\”:\”\”,\”caption\”:\”\u003cp>Herrings (top) and smelts are unrelated cold-water fish, but because of a horizontal transfer long ago, they both carry the same gene that prevents them from freezing in icy waters.\u003c\\/p>\\n\”,\”attribution\”:\”\u003cp>(from top) Four Oaks; Jack Perks\u003c\\/p>\\n\”,\”variant\”:\”shortcode\”,\”size\”:\”wide\”,\”disableZoom\”:true,\”disableMobileZoom\”:false,\”srcImage\”:{\”ID\”:120181,\”id\”:120181,\”title\”:\”herring-smelt-diptych\”,\”filename\”:\”herring-smelt-diptych-1.webp\”,\”filesize\”:398186,\”url\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/herring-smelt-diptych-1.webp\”,\”link\”:\”https:\\/\\/www.quantamagazine.org\\/how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\\/herring-smelt-diptych-2\\/\”,\”alt\”:\”Diptych of a herring and a smelt swimming in the open water.\”,\”author\”:\”45758\”,\”description\”:\”\”,\”caption\”:\”\”,\”name\”:\”herring-smelt-diptych-2\”,\”status\”:\”inherit\”,\”uploaded_to\”:120104,\”date\”:\”2022-10-26 20:02:17\”,\”modified\”:\”2022-10-26 20:02:25\”,\”menu_order\”:0,\”mime_type\”:\”image\\/webp\”,\”type\”:\”image\”,\”subtype\”:\”webp\”,\”icon\”:\”https:\\/\\/api.quantamagazine.org\\/wp-includes\\/images\\/media\\/default.png\”,\”width\”:920,\”height\”:920,\”sizes\”:{\”thumbnail\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/herring-smelt-diptych-1-520×520.webp\”,\”thumbnail-width\”:520,\”thumbnail-height\”:520,\”medium\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/herring-smelt-diptych-1.webp\”,\”medium-width\”:920,\”medium-height\”:920,\”medium_large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/herring-smelt-diptych-1-768×768.webp\”,\”medium_large-width\”:768,\”medium_large-height\”:768,\”large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/herring-smelt-diptych-1.webp\”,\”large-width\”:920,\”large-height\”:920,\”1536×1536\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/herring-smelt-diptych-1.webp\”,\”1536×1536-width\”:920,\”1536×1536-height\”:920,\”2048×2048\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/herring-smelt-diptych-1.webp\”,\”2048×2048-width\”:920,\”2048×2048-height\”:920,\”square_small\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/herring-smelt-diptych-1-160×160.webp\”,\”square_small-width\”:160,\”square_small-height\”:160,\”square_large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/herring-smelt-diptych-1-520×520.webp\”,\”square_large-width\”:520,\”square_large-height\”:520}},\”largeForPrint\”:false,\”externalLink\”:\”\”,\”original_resolution\”:false}}\u003c\/script>\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>Similarly, the evolutionary biologist \u003ca href=\” G.J. Danchin\u003c/a> and his colleagues at the National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment in France are studying \u003ca href=\” suite of enzymes\u003c/a> that nematode worms got from bacteria. And over 100 gene families appear to have leapt from microbes to plants long ago, wrote \u003ca href=\” Huang\u003c/a> of Eastern Carolina University and colleagues \u003ca href=\” a paper\u003c/a> this year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are beautifully clear reasons why evolution smiled on some of these improbable transfers. The fish with the gene don’t freeze. The nematodes’ digestive enzymes enable them to wring more energy from the cell walls of the plants they eat. Because of a cluster of enzymes picked up from bacteria, the hot spring-dwelling red algae studied by the evolutionary biologist \u003ca href=\” Bhattacharya\u003c/a> and his student \u003ca href=\” Van Etten\u003c/a> at Rutgers University can survive contact with substances that would otherwise kill them. If a gene boosts survival, it doesn’t take long before the descendants of the first organism to acquire it take over.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not all these wandering genes, however, necessarily convey an advantage. \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em> is a well-known transposon, a scrap of genetic material prone to jumping randomly around the genome. In a way, its jumps from snakes into frogs in Madagascar — however they occurred — are just bizarrely bigger leaps than usual. Moreover, although transposons can have \u003ca href=\” effects on genomes\u003c/a>, \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em> isn’t a gene with a function in the traditional sense; it’s just a bit of DNA that makes copies of itself. Kurabayashi notes that although the possibility that \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em> benefited the frogs can’t be ruled out, it’s more likely that \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em> persists through its own aggressive success at self-duplication. This may help to explain why it is that when eukaryotes wind up with other organisms’ genetic material, \u003ca href=\” like \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em> are often involved\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As strange as it might seem for eukaryotes to pick up genes from bacteria, stranger still is the fact that examples of horizontal gene transfer in the other direction are vastly rarer. For some reason, bacteria don’t want our genes. Eukaryotic genes have structural features that make them less than perfect material for bacteria, but there may be other contributing factors as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Maybe eukaryotes don’t have the genes that bacteria are interested in,” said \u003ca href=\” Keeling\u003c/a>, a biologist at the University of British Columbia who studies horizontal transfers.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>\u003cstrong>Going Viral\u003c/strong>\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>Unlike bacteria, viruses have a real knack for picking up genes from their eukaryotic hosts. Viruses, particularly the ones called retroviruses, have the tools for getting into a host’s cells and nuclei, and they are masters of inserting genetic material into host genomes. Up to 8% of the human genome is made up of the leftovers of retroviruses, fragments of long-ago infections in our species’ history.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv id=’component-635a8e916a55e’ class=””>\u003cscript type=\”text/template\”>{\”type\”:\”Image\”,\”id\”:\”component-635a8e916a55e\”,\”data\”:{\”id\”:120174,\”src\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop.svg\”,\”alt\”:\”\”,\”class\”:\”\”,\”width\”:0,\”height\”:0,\”mobileSrc\”:{\”ID\”:120175,\”id\”:120175,\”title\”:\”GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Mobile\”,\”filename\”:\”GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Mobile.svg\”,\”filesize\”:744957,\”url\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Mobile.svg\”,\”link\”:\”https:\\/\\/www.quantamagazine.org\\/how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\\/gene_transfer-3_560-mobile\\/\”,\”alt\”:\”\”,\”author\”:\”45758\”,\”description\”:\”\”,\”caption\”:\”\”,\”name\”:\”gene_transfer-3_560-mobile\”,\”status\”:\”inherit\”,\”uploaded_to\”:120104,\”date\”:\”2022-10-26 19:02:15\”,\”modified\”:\”2022-10-26 19:02:15\”,\”menu_order\”:0,\”mime_type\”:\”image\\/svg+xml\”,\”type\”:\”image\”,\”subtype\”:\”svg+xml\”,\”icon\”:\”https:\\/\\/api.quantamagazine.org\\/wp-includes\\/images\\/media\\/default.png\”,\”width\”:0,\”height\”:0,\”sizes\”:{\”thumbnail\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Mobile.svg\”,\”thumbnail-width\”:1,\”thumbnail-height\”:1,\”medium\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Mobile.svg\”,\”medium-width\”:1,\”medium-height\”:1,\”medium_large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Mobile.svg\”,\”medium_large-width\”:1,\”medium_large-height\”:1,\”large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Mobile.svg\”,\”large-width\”:1,\”large-height\”:1,\”1536×1536\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Mobile.svg\”,\”1536×1536-width\”:1,\”1536×1536-height\”:1,\”2048×2048\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Mobile.svg\”,\”2048×2048-width\”:1,\”2048×2048-height\”:1,\”square_small\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Mobile.svg\”,\”square_small-width\”:1,\”square_small-height\”:1,\”square_large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Mobile.svg\”,\”square_large-width\”:1,\”square_large-height\”:1}},\”zoomSrc\”:false,\”mobileZoomSrc\”:false,\”align\”:\”align=\\\”inline\\\”\”,\”wrapper_width\”:\”\”,\”caption\”:\”\”,\”attribution\”:\”\u003cp>Merrill Sherman\\/Quanta Magazine\u003c\\/p>\\n\”,\”variant\”:\”shortcode\”,\”size\”:\”wide\”,\”disableZoom\”:false,\”disableMobileZoom\”:false,\”srcImage\”:{\”ID\”:120174,\”id\”:120174,\”title\”:\”GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop\”,\”filename\”:\”GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop.svg\”,\”filesize\”:591638,\”url\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop.svg\”,\”link\”:\”https:\\/\\/www.quantamagazine.org\\/how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\\/gene_transfer-3_560-desktop\\/\”,\”alt\”:\”\”,\”author\”:\”45758\”,\”description\”:\”\”,\”caption\”:\”\”,\”name\”:\”gene_transfer-3_560-desktop\”,\”status\”:\”inherit\”,\”uploaded_to\”:120104,\”date\”:\”2022-10-26 19:02:14\”,\”modified\”:\”2022-10-26 19:02:14\”,\”menu_order\”:0,\”mime_type\”:\”image\\/svg+xml\”,\”type\”:\”image\”,\”subtype\”:\”svg+xml\”,\”icon\”:\”https:\\/\\/api.quantamagazine.org\\/wp-includes\\/images\\/media\\/default.png\”,\”width\”:0,\”height\”:0,\”sizes\”:{\”thumbnail\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop.svg\”,\”thumbnail-width\”:1,\”thumbnail-height\”:1,\”medium\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop.svg\”,\”medium-width\”:1,\”medium-height\”:1,\”medium_large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop.svg\”,\”medium_large-width\”:1,\”medium_large-height\”:1,\”large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop.svg\”,\”large-width\”:1,\”large-height\”:1,\”1536×1536\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop.svg\”,\”1536×1536-width\”:1,\”1536×1536-height\”:1,\”2048×2048\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop.svg\”,\”2048×2048-width\”:1,\”2048×2048-height\”:1,\”square_small\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop.svg\”,\”square_small-width\”:1,\”square_small-height\”:1,\”square_large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/GENE_TRANSFER-3_560-Desktop.svg\”,\”square_large-width\”:1,\”square_large-height\”:1}},\”largeForPrint\”:false,\”externalLink\”:\”\”,\”original_resolution\”:false}}\u003c\/script>\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>Sometimes the transfer goes the other way, too. In \u003ca href=\” paper\u003c/a> published in \u003cem>Nature Microbiology\u003c/em> last December, Keeling, his collaborator \u003ca href=\” Irwin\u003c/a> of the University of Oxford and their colleagues performed the first comprehensive analysis of horizontal gene transfers between 201 eukaryotes and 108,842 viruses. They found evidence for more than 6,700 gene transfers, with host-to-virus transfers about twice as common as virus-to-host transfers. They concluded that horizontal gene transfers had been major drivers of evolution on both sides: Viruses often used the eukaryotic genes they acquired to become more effective at infecting their hosts, while eukaryotes sometimes used elements of the viral genes to create novel features or to regulate their metabolisms in new ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Findings like these have persuaded some biologists that at least some horizontal gene transfers may be facilitated by viruses. If viruses can pick up genes from their hosts, and if they can leave behind pieces of their genomes, it seems possible that they could also sometimes ferry over genes from the last host they infected, or even one from generations ago, and give them to a new host.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The involvement of viruses could also help to solve another puzzle about horizontal transfers in eukaryotes. For the transfers to occur, the traveling genes need to clear an entire series of hurdles. First they must get from the donor species to the new host species. Then they must get into the nucleus and ensconce themselves in the host genome. But getting into the genome of just any cell won’t do: In multicellular creatures like frogs and herrings, a gene won’t be passed down to the animal’s offspring unless it can sneak into a germline cell — a sperm or an egg.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Viruses might make that series of events more likely. In small organisms like the nematode, Danchin said, the reproductive tract and its germ cells are not far from the intestinal tract, where viruses ingested on food can settle. Because frogs release their eggs and sperm into the open water, those cells are potentially vulnerable to viruses in the environment that could slip in genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even with larger creatures, it might be easier than you think. At this point, it’s still a speculative idea, but “the reproductive tract is full of microbes and viruses,” Danchin said. “We know some viruses infect specifically germ cells.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Keeling suggests that to understand the mystery of horizontal gene transfer, perhaps we should think of them as ecological consequences of an organism’s behaviors, its neighbors and its environment. If a horizontally transferred gene confers any survival benefit, it’s likely to be highly contingent on the specific scenario in which the recipient of the gene finds itself — an icy sea, a hot spring, an appetizing host plant with tough defenses. “They’re so tied to the ecology where that thing is, but it changes,” he speculated. With the wrong shift in the environment, the transferred gene “is no longer advantageous, and it’s lost.”\u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>\u003cstrong>Ecological Clues\u003c/strong>\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>Horizontal gene transfers in eukaryotes may be happening all the time: in the pond in your backyard, in the soil beneath your feet, in the animals, insects and plants that make up the ecosystem. “I think there is way more transfer than we know,” Bhattacharya said. “We just don’t see them because they are swept out.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv id=’component-635a8e916f682′ class=””>\u003cscript type=\”text/template\”>{\”type\”:\”Image\”,\”id\”:\”component-635a8e916f682\”,\”data\”:{\”id\”:120170,\”src\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/nematode.webp\”,\”alt\”:\”Micrograph of a nematode curling in a spiral.\”,\”class\”:\”\”,\”width\”:1300,\”height\”:1300,\”mobileSrc\”:false,\”zoomSrc\”:false,\”mobileZoomSrc\”:false,\”align\”:\”align=\\\”right\\\”\”,\”wrapper_width\”:\”\”,\”caption\”:\”\u003cp>Nematode worms are so tiny that viruses in their gut may be separated from the worm\\u2019s reproductive tract by only a few cells.\u003c\\/p>\\n\”,\”attribution\”:\”\u003cp>Specious Reasons\u003c\\/p>\\n\”,\”variant\”:\”shortcode\”,\”size\”:\”default\”,\”disableZoom\”:false,\”disableMobileZoom\”:false,\”srcImage\”:{\”ID\”:120170,\”id\”:120170,\”title\”:\”nematode\”,\”filename\”:\”nematode.webp\”,\”filesize\”:310676,\”url\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/nematode.webp\”,\”link\”:\”https:\\/\\/www.quantamagazine.org\\/how-genes-can-leap-from-snakes-to-frogs-20221027\\/nematode\\/\”,\”alt\”:\”Micrograph of a nematode curling in a spiral.\”,\”author\”:\”45758\”,\”description\”:\”\”,\”caption\”:\”\”,\”name\”:\”nematode\”,\”status\”:\”inherit\”,\”uploaded_to\”:120104,\”date\”:\”2022-10-26 18:55:49\”,\”modified\”:\”2022-10-26 18:58:06\”,\”menu_order\”:0,\”mime_type\”:\”image\\/webp\”,\”type\”:\”image\”,\”subtype\”:\”webp\”,\”icon\”:\”https:\\/\\/api.quantamagazine.org\\/wp-includes\\/images\\/media\\/default.png\”,\”width\”:1300,\”height\”:1300,\”sizes\”:{\”thumbnail\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/nematode-520×520.webp\”,\”thumbnail-width\”:520,\”thumbnail-height\”:520,\”medium\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/nematode.webp\”,\”medium-width\”:1300,\”medium-height\”:1300,\”medium_large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/nematode-768×768.webp\”,\”medium_large-width\”:768,\”medium_large-height\”:768,\”large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/nematode.webp\”,\”large-width\”:1300,\”large-height\”:1300,\”1536×1536\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/nematode.webp\”,\”1536×1536-width\”:1300,\”1536×1536-height\”:1300,\”2048×2048\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/nematode.webp\”,\”2048×2048-width\”:1300,\”2048×2048-height\”:1300,\”square_small\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/nematode-160×160.webp\”,\”square_small-width\”:160,\”square_small-height\”:160,\”square_large\”:\”https:\\/\\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\\/uploads\\/2050\\/10\\/nematode-520×520.webp\”,\”square_large-width\”:520,\”square_large-height\”:520}},\”largeForPrint\”:false,\”externalLink\”:\”\”,\”original_resolution\”:false}}\u003c\/script>\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>To check how common it is for frogs to have snake \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em>, Kurabayashi’s team reached out to their colleagues for samples of frogs from around the world for DNA sequencing. They found that out of 149 species, 50 came back with \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em>. The 32 Malagasy frogs that they tested made up less than a quarter of all the species sampled, but 29 of them carried the snake gene — a clear majority of all the transfers found around the world. Moreover, at least two of the frog lineages didn’t acquire \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em> until after their ancestors migrated from Africa to Madagascar.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most interesting thing about the paper, Graham said, “is it’s showing the rate of transfer is not uniform. It varies widely among geographic regions.” If more studies set out with the goal of looking at gene transfer around the globe — seeing whether transfers have happened at different rates in different places — what we find may surprise us. Perhaps geography matters more than we might expect.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is there something about the environment of Madagascar that makes it a hot spot for gene transfers? No one knows. Kurabayashi says that he and his group suspect most strongly that the snake \u003cem>BovB\u003c/em> in Madagascar differs from versions elsewhere in the world in being just a little bit better at getting itself into a new host.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the abundance of parasites on the island might also be a contributing factor. For example, “in Madagascar, there are lots of leeches,” said \u003ca href=\” Vences\u003c/a>, a herpetologist at the Braunschweig University of Technology in Germany and an author of the new paper. “If you’re in the rainforest, you will notice them.” The bloodsucking creatures feed on many types of animals, including frogs and snakes, and they are not above sampling humans. Vences and his colleagues speculate that leeches may bring blood containing the snake’s jumping gene into the frogs, or perhaps the jumping gene is already in the leech’s own genome from previous contacts with snakes. Then maybe an unidentified virus does the rest.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv id=’component-635a8e916ff16′ class=”related-list”>\u003cscript type=\”text/template\”>{\”type\”:\”LinkList\”,\”id\”:\”component-635a8e916ff16\”,\”data\”:{\”title\”:\”Related:\”,\”class\”:\”related-list\”,\”links\”:[{\”type\”:\”internal\”,\”link\”:\”https:\\/\\/www.quantamagazine.org\\/dna-jumps-between-animal-species-no-one-knows-how-often-20210609\\/\”,\”title\”:\”DNA Jumps Between Animal Species. No One Knows How Often.\”},{\”type\”:\”internal\”,\”link\”:\”https:\\/\\/www.quantamagazine.org\\/scientists-catch-jumping-genes-rewiring-genomes-20210512\\/\”,\”title\”:\”Scientists Catch Jumping Genes Rewiring Genomes\”},{\”type\”:\”internal\”,\”link\”:\”https:\\/\\/www.quantamagazine.org\\/chronological-clues-to-lifes-early-history-lurk-in-gene-transfers-20180424\\/\”,\”title\”:\”Chronological Clues to Life\\u2019s Early History Lurk in Gene Transfers\”}]}}\u003c\/script>\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>Unfortunately, it isn’t easy to prove or disprove scenarios describing how such horizontal transfers might have occurred. Without selection to preserve DNA sequences, they tend to mutate and get scrambled over long stretches of time, erasing the molecular evidence of a transfer. And if a virus is involved in the transfer, it may leave very little evidence in the first place, Graham said. Researchers might therefore almost need to catch a genetic jump in the act to know how it is happening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bhattacharya is in the early stages of a project aiming to do just that. In the hot springs at Lemonade Creek in Yellowstone National Park, he and his colleagues are looking for signs of transfers that may still be in the process of taking hold. They are studying the DNA of red algae that have picked up genes from bacteria that also live in the springs, genes that bear only small differences from the originals. “We’re not talking about millions of years ago,” said Bhattacharya. “We’re talking about DNA that’s highly similar, that coexists in two different domains of life, in the same environment.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the scientists find that algae in nearby springs lack any of these transferred genes, then they may be witnessing the beginning of a ripple of genetic change moving outward through the algae, from one neighboring spring to the next. Each new hot pool may be an island on the brink of a transformation.\u003c/p>\n”,”fadein”:false,”__typename”:”ACFContent”},”$Post:120104.acf.series”:{“name”:null,”link”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$Post:120104.next.data.0″:{“title”:”Brightest-Ever Space Explosion Reveals Possible Hints of Dark Matter”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/brightest-ever-space-explosion-could-help-explain-dark-matter-20221026/”,”categories”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.next.data.0.categories.0″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.next.data.0.categories.1″,”typename”:”Term”}],”featured_media_image”:null,”acf”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.next.data.0.acf”,”typename”:”ACFFields”},”__typename”:”Post”},”$Post:120104.next.data.0.categories.0″:{“slug”:”abstractions”,”__typename”:”Term”},”$Post:120104.next.data.0.categories.1″:{“slug”:”physics”,”__typename”:”Term”},”$Post:120104.next.data.0.acf”:{“template”:”article”,”featured_block_title”:”Brightest-Ever Space Explosion Reveals Hints of Dark Matter”,”featured_image_gif”:false,”featured_image_default”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_default”,”typename”:”Image”},”featured_image_full_width”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_full_width”,”typename”:”Image”},”__typename”:”ACFFields”},”$Post:120104.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_default”:{“alt”:”A bright purple splotch surrounded by concentric purple rings.”,”caption”:””,”url”:” bright purple splotch surrounded by concentric purple rings.”,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/10/BOAT-Gamma-Ray-Burst_2880x1220_HP-scaled.webp”,”width”:2560,”height”:1084,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_full_width.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:120104.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_full_width.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/10/BOAT-Gamma-Ray-Burst_2880x1220_HP-520×220.webp”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/10/BOAT-Gamma-Ray-Burst_2880x1220_HP-160×160.webp”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/10/BOAT-Gamma-Ray-Burst_2880x1220_HP-520×520.webp”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/10/BOAT-Gamma-Ray-Burst_2880x1220_HP-1720×729.webp”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/10/BOAT-Gamma-Ray-Burst_2880x1220_HP-768×325.webp”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/10/BOAT-Gamma-Ray-Burst_2880x1220_HP-scaled.webp”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:120104.next”:{“data”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:120104.next.data.0″,”typename”:”Post”}],”__typename”:”PostPageArchive”}}\n”,”settings”:{“socialLinks”:[{“type”:”facebook”,”label”:”Facebook”,”url”:”https://www.facebook.com/QuantaNews”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},{“type”:”twitter”,”label”:”Twitter”,”url”:”https://twitter.com/QuantaMagazine”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},{“type”:”youtube”,”label”:”YouTube”,”url”:”https://www.youtube.com/c/QuantaScienceChannel”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},{“type”:”instagram”,”label”:”Instagram”,”url”:”https://instagram.com/quantamag”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},{“type”:”rss”,”label”:”RSS”,”url”:”https://api.quantamagazine.org/feed/”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”}],”newsletterAction”:”https://quantamagazine.us1.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=0d6ddf7dc1a0b7297c8e06618&id=f0cb61321c”,”newsletterUrl”:”http://us1.campaign-archive2.com/home/?u=0d6ddf7dc1a0b7297c8e06618&id=f0cb61321c”,”sfNotice”:”An editorially independent publication supported by the Simons Foundation.”,”commentsHeader”:”
Quanta Magazine moderates comments to facilitate an informed, substantive, civil conversation. Abusive, profane, self-promotional, misleading, incoherent or off-topic comments will be rejected. Moderators are staffed during regular business hours (New York time) and can only accept comments written in English.
\n”,”channels”:[{“title”:”The Joy of Why”,”slug”:”the-joy-of-why”,”description”:”The mathematician and author Steven Strogatz interviews leading researchers about the great scientific and mathematical questions of our time.”,”featured_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:” Science Podcast”,”slug”:”quanta-podcast”,”description”:”Susan Valot narrates in-depth news episodes based on Quanta Magazine‘s articles about mathematics, physics, biology and computer science. “,”featured_image”:{“alt”:”A human figure’s brain with a “low battery” icon on it.”,”caption”:””,”url”:” Joy of x”,”slug”:”the-joy-of-x”,”description”:”The acclaimed mathematician and author Steven Strogatz interviews some of the world’s leading scientists about their lives and work.”,”featured_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1.jpg”,”width”:1920,”height”:1080,”sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-520×293.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-1720×968.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-768×432.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”square_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”width”:600,”height”:600,”sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600-520×520.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”subscribe_itunes_link”:”https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/the-joy-of-x/id1495067186″,”subscribe_spotify_link”:”https://open.spotify.com/show/5HcCtKPH5gnOjRiMtTdC07?si=lFzCzat9QfuPU3hWuYibxQ”,”subscribe_android_link”:”https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9hcGkucXVhbnRhbWFnYXppbmUub3JnL2ZlZWQvdGhlLWpveS1vZi14Lw”,”subscribe_stitcher_link”:”https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/the-joy-of-x”,”__typename”:”Channel”}],”editors”:[{“name”:”Bill Andrews – Senior CS Editor”,”__typename”:”Editor”},{“name”:”Ben Brubaker – Staff CS Writer”,”__typename”:”Editor”},{“name”:”Matt Carlstrom – Senior Engagement Editor”,”__typename”:”Editor”},{“name”:”Jordana Cepelewicz – Senior Math Writer”,”__typename”:”Editor”},{“name”:”Konstantin Kakaes – Senior Math Editor”,”__typename”:”Editor”},{“name”:”Thomas Lin – Editor in Chief”,”__typename”:”Editor”},{“name”:”Michael Moyer – Deputy Editor, Physics, Math, CS”,”__typename”:”Editor”},{“name”:”John Rennie – Deputy Editor, Biology, Podcasts”,”__typename”:”Editor”},{“name”:”Yasemin Saplakoglu – Staff Biology Writer”,”__typename”:”Editor”},{“name”:”Samuel Velasco – Art Director”,”__typename”:”Editor”},{“name”:”Natalie Wolchover – Senior Physics Editor”,”__typename”:”Editor”},{“name”:”Charlie Wood – Staff Physics Writer”,”__typename”:”Editor”}],”popularSearches”:[{“term”:”math”,”label”:”Mathematics”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“term”:”physics”,”label”:”Physics”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“term”:”black holes”,”label”:”Black Holes”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“term”:”evolution”,”label”:”Evolution”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”}],”searchTopics”:[{“type”:”Tag”,”label”:”Podcasts”,”tag”:{“name”:”Quanta Podcast”,”slug”:”quanta-podcast”,”term_id”:”552″,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Tag”,”label”:”Columns”,”tag”:{“name”:”Quantized Columns”,”slug”:”quantized”,”term_id”:”551″,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Series”,”label”:”Series”,”tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Interviews”,”tag”:{“name”:”Q&A”,”slug”:”qa”,”term_id”:”567″,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:”Q&A”,”slug”:”qa”,”term_id”:”176″,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Multimedia”,”tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:”Multimedia”,”slug”:”multimedia”,”term_id”:”43″,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Puzzles”,”tag”:{“name”:”puzzles”,”slug”:”puzzles”,”term_id”:”542″,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:”Puzzles”,”slug”:”puzzles”,”term_id”:”546″,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Blog Posts”,”tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:”Abstractions blog”,”slug”:”abstractions”,”term_id”:”619″,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”news”,”label”:”News Articles”,”tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”videos”,”label”:”Videos”,”tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”}],”searchSections”:[{“name”:”Mathematics”,”slug”:”mathematics”,”term_id”:”188″,”__typename”:”Term”},{“name”:”Physics”,”slug”:”physics”,”term_id”:”189″,”__typename”:”Term”},{“name”:”Biology”,”slug”:”biology”,”term_id”:”191″,”__typename”:”Term”},{“name”:”Computer Science”,”slug”:”computer-science”,”term_id”:”190″,”__typename”:”Term”}],”searchAuthors”:[{“id”:”38171″,”name”:”Adam Becker”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”28087″,”name”:”Adam Mann”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”29794″,”name”:”Alex Kontorovich”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”39302″,”name”:”Alexander Hellemans”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”56″,”name”:”Alla Katsnelson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”47249″,”name”:”Allison Parshall”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”29458″,”name”:”Allison Whitten”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”73″,”name”:”Amanda Gefter”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”39164″,”name”:”Ana Kova”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”59″,”name”:”Andreas von Bubnoff”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”8728″,”name”:”Anil Ananthaswamy”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”11648″,”name”:”Ann Finkbeiner”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”42689″,”name”:”Annie Melchor”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”95″,”name”:”Ariel Bleicher”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15493″,”name”:”Ashley Smart”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”450″,”name”:”Ashley Yeager”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”36490″,”name”:”Ben Brubaker”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”16315″,”name”:”Bill Andrews”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”2752″,”name”:”Bob Henderson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15492″,”name”:”Brendan Z. Foster”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”68″,”name”:”Brooke Borel”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”62″,”name”:”Carl Zimmer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13684″,”name”:”Caroline Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13691″,”name”:”Caroline Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”50″,”name”:”Carrie Arnold”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15142″,”name”:”Chanda Prescod-Weinstein”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”8084″,”name”:”Charlie Wood”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”742″,”name”:”Christie Wilcox”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”11543″,”name”:”Claudia Dreifus”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”57″,”name”:”Courtney Humphries”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”7262″,”name”:”Dalmeet Singh Chawla”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”70″,”name”:”Dan Falk”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”19918″,”name”:”Dana Najjar”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13695″,”name”:”Daniel Garisto”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”32676″,”name”:”Daniel S. Freed”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13724″,”name”:”David H. Freedman”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”26310″,”name”:”David S. Richeson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”30207″,”name”:”David Tse”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”19266″,”name”:”Devin Powell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13251″,”name”:”Diana Kwon”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”17000″,”name”:”Elena Renken”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”17149″,”name”:”Elizabeth Landau”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”5279″,”name”:”Elizabeth Preston”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”58″,”name”:”Elizabeth Svoboda”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”32612″,”name”:”Ellen Horne”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”27534″,”name”:”Emily Buder”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”25173″,”name”:”Emily Levesque”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”64″,”name”:”Emily Singer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”47″,”name”:”Erica Klarreich”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”14784″,”name”:”Erika K. Carlson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”98″,”name”:”Esther Landhuis”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”5830″,”name”:”Eva Silverstein”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”6793″,”name”:”Evelyn Lamb”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”75″,”name”:”Ferris Jabr”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”52″,”name”:”Frank Wilczek”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”69″,”name”:”Gabriel Popkin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”77″,”name”:”George Musser”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”19092″,”name”:”Grant Sanderson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”20557″,”name”:”Howard Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”66″,”name”:”Ingrid Daubechies”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”46418″,”name”:”Ingrid Wickelgren”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”85″,”name”:”Ivan Amato”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”37141″,”name”:”Jake Buehler”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”44758″,”name”:”James Dinneen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”12170″,”name”:”Janna Levin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”32″,”name”:”Jeanette Kazmierczak”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”51″,”name”:”Jennifer Ouellette”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”44787″,”name”:”Joanna Thompson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”72″,”name”:”John Pavlus”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”16475″,”name”:”John Preskill”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”91″,”name”:”John Rennie”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”10351″,”name”:”Jonathan Lambert”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”31716″,”name”:”Jonathan O’Callaghan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”1241″,”name”:”Jordana Cepelewicz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”8463″,”name”:”Joshua Roebke”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”49″,”name”:”Joshua Sokol”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”16815″,”name”:”jye”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”67″,”name”:”K.C. Cole”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”37462″,”name”:”Karmela Padavic-Callaghan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”87″,”name”:”Kat McGowan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”36139″,”name”:”Katarina Zimmer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”20556″,”name”:”Katherine Harmon Courage”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”90″,”name”:”Katia Moskvitch”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”39551″,”name”:”Katie McCormick”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”27374″,”name”:”Kelsey Houston-Edwards”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”40″,”name”:”Kevin Hartnett”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”45758″,”name”:”Kristina Armitage”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”38413″,”name”:”Lakshmi Chandrasekaran”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”12570″,”name”:”Laura Poppick”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”38699″,”name”:”Leila Sloman”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”23451″,”name”:”Liam Drew”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”79″,”name”:”Liz Kruesi”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”38″,”name”:”Lucy Reading-Ikkanda”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”60″,”name”:”Maggie McKee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”2333″,”name”:”Mallory Locklear”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”3569″,”name”:”Marcus Woo”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”414″,”name”:”Mark Kim-Mulgrew”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”20495″,”name”:”Matt Carlstrom”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”17147″,”name”:”Matthew Hutson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”30953″,”name”:”Max G. Levy”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”32437″,”name”:”Max Kozlov”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”38705″,”name”:”mcho”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”40613″,”name”:”Melanie Mitchell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”7186″,”name”:”Melinda Wenner Moyer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”14093″,”name”:”Michael Harris”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”34″,”name”:”Michael Kranz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”23″,”name”:”Michael Moyer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”74″,”name”:”Michael Nielsen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”19093″,”name”:”Michele Bannister”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”1472″,”name”:”Moira Chas”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”6476″,”name”:”Monique Brouillette”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”42264″,”name”:”Mordechai Rorvig”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”10″,”name”:”Natalie Wolchover”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”37605″,”name”:”Nick Thieme”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”43298″,”name”:”Nicole Yunger Halpern”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”37428″,”name”:”Nima Arkani-Hamed”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”19962″,”name”:”Nola Taylor Redd”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”24″,”name”:”Olena Shmahalo”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”1816″,”name”:”Patrick Honner”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”84″,”name”:”Peter Byrne”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”55″,”name”:”Philip Ball”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”31″,”name”:”Pradeep Mutalik”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”24011″,”name”:”Puja Changoiwala”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”100″,”name”:”Quanta Magazine”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”2784″,”name”:”R. Douglas Fields”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”26114″,”name”:”Rachel Crowell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”9412″,”name”:”Raleigh McElvery”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”820″,”name”:”Ramin Skibba”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”1666″,”name”:”Rebecca Boyle”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”20950″,”name”:”Richard Masland”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”48″,”name”:”Robbert Dijkgraaf”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”80″,”name”:”Roberta Kwok”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15681″,”name”:”Robin George Andrews”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”24577″,”name”:”Rodrigo Pérez Ortega”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”78″,”name”:”Sabine Hossenfelder”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”23845″,”name”:”Samuel Velasco”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”83″,”name”:”Sarah Lewin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”35441″,”name”:”Scott Aaronson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”76″,”name”:”Sean B. Carroll”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15680″,”name”:”Sean Carroll”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”7239″,”name”:”Shannon Hall”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”44197″,”name”:”Sheon Han”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”65″,”name”:”Siobhan Roberts”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”5944″,”name”:”Sophia Chen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”61″,”name”:”Steph Yin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”63″,”name”:”Stephanie Bucklin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”26311″,”name”:”Stephanie DeMarco”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”71″,”name”:”Stephen Ornes”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”17148″,”name”:”Steve Nadis”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13356″,”name”:”Steven Strogatz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”17150″,”name”:”Susan D’Agostino”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”39768″,”name”:”Tamar Lichter Blanks”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”2960″,”name”:”Tara C. Smith”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”14785″,”name”:”Thomas Lewton”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”3″,”name”:”Thomas Lin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”54″,”name”:”Tim Vernimmen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”88″,”name”:”Tom Siegfried”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”12964″,”name”:”Vanessa Schipani”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”53″,”name”:”Veronique Greenwood”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”86″,”name”:”Virginia Hughes”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”3244″,”name”:”Viviane Callier”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”89″,”name”:”Wynne Parry”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15913″,”name”:”XiaoZhi Lim”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”42263″,”name”:”Yasemin Saplakoglu”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”45757″,”name”:”Zack Savitsky”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”}],”adBehavior”:”everywhere”,”adUrl”:” Entangled”,”adImageHome”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2021/09/2021PodcastAd_Web-Default_260.jpg”,”adImageArticle”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2021/09/2021PodcastAd_Article_160.jpg”,”adImageTablet”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2021/09/2021PodcastAd_Tablet_890.jpg”,”adImageMobile”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2021/09/2021PodcastAd_Web-Default_260.jpg”,”trackingScripts”:”\r\n<\!-- Google Tag Manager -->\r\n\r\n<\!-- End Google Tag Manager -->\r\n<\!-- Google Tag Manager (noscript) -->\r\n\r\n<\!-- End Google Tag Manager (noscript) -->\r\n\r\n”},”theme”:{“page”:{“accent”:”#ff8600″,”text”:”#1a1a1a”,”background”:”white”},”header”:{“type”:”default”,”gradient”:{“color”:”white”},”solid”:{“primary”:”#1a1a1a”,”secondary”:”#999999″,”hover”:”#ff8600″},”transparent”:{“primary”:”white”,”secondary”:”white”,”hover”:”#ff8600″}}},”redirect”:null,”fallbackImage”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default.gif”,”width”:1200,”height”:600,”sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default-520×260.gif”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default-160×160.gif”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default-520×520.gif”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default.gif”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default-768×384.gif”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default.gif”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”}},”modals”:{“loginModal”:false,”signUpModal”:false,”forgotPasswordModal”:false,”resetPasswordModal”:false,”lightboxModal”:false,”callback”:null,”props”:null},”podcast”:{“id”:null,”playing”:false,”duration”:0,”currentTime”:0},”user”:{“loggedIn”:false,”savedArticleIDs”:[],”userEmail”:””,”editor”:false},”comments”:{“open”:false},”cookies”:{“acceptedCookie”:false}},
env: {
APP_URL: ‘
NODE_ENV: ‘production’,
WP_URL: ‘
HAS_GOOGLE_ID: true,
HAS_FACEBOOK_ID: true,
},
}
Recent News
![Time Tracking](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Time-Tracking-400x240.png)
![Time Tracking](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Time-Tracking-80x80.png)
The Power of Effective Time Tracking The Essential Role of Time Management in Today’s Workplace
With the pace of today’s business world, managing time effectively has become crucial. As professionals juggle multiple tasks and projects,...
![Car Accident](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Car-Accident-400x240.jpg)
![Car Accident](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Car-Accident-80x80.jpg)
How a Car Accident Law Firm in North Carolina Can Help You Get the Compensation You Deserve
Dealing with the aftermath of a car accident can be incredibly stressful, especially if you’re trying to navigate medical bills,...
![Recruitment Agency in Qatar](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Recruitment-Agency-in-Qatar-400x240.jpg)
![Recruitment Agency in Qatar](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Recruitment-Agency-in-Qatar-80x80.jpg)
How a Recruitment Agency in Qatar Can Transform Your Hiring Process
A recruitment agency in Qatar can be instrumental in transforming your hiring process. They can help you understand the hiring...
![](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Screenshot_2024-08-30-02-16-58-73_a1b1bbe5f63d5b96c1a0f87c197ebfae-400x240.jpg)
![](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Screenshot_2024-08-30-02-16-58-73_a1b1bbe5f63d5b96c1a0f87c197ebfae-80x80.jpg)
Top Benefits of Using Nadra Solutions for Renewing Your Pakistani Passport from the UK
Renewing a Pakistani passport while living in the UK can often be a complex and daunting task. From navigating bureaucratic...
![Taylor Kitsch wife](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Taylor-Kitsch-wife-400x240.jpg)
![Taylor Kitsch wife](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Taylor-Kitsch-wife-80x80.jpg)
Taylor Kitsch Wife, Rumours or Reality?
Is Taylor Kitsch married? Is there any lucky girl who is legally Taylor Kitsch wife? This article will provide in-depth...
![Tolly Saivanidis](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Tolly-Saivanidis-400x240.jpg)
![Tolly Saivanidis](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Tolly-Saivanidis-80x80.jpg)
Tolly Saivanidis and Trademarks: A Saga of Intellectual Property Protection
In the realm of intellectual property, trademarks stand as the stalwarts guarding the identity and reputation of businesses. From iconic...
![Headhunter Services](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Headhunter-Services-400x240.png)
![Headhunter Services](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Headhunter-Services-80x80.png)
How Can Headhunter Services Transform Your Hiring Strategy?
Hiring the right people is super important for any business. But sometimes, finding the best candidates can be challenging. This...
![Hire React](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Hire-React-400x240.jpg)
![Hire React](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Hire-React-80x80.jpg)
Why Should You Hire React Developers?
A user-friendly and modern architectural website is an essential requirement for businesses. Worry not; in a robust digital world, ReactJS...
![Mr. Harrigan's](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Mr.-Harrigans-400x240.webp)
![Mr. Harrigan's](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Mr.-Harrigans-80x80.webp)
‘Mr. Harrigan’s Telephone’: Stephen King’s long-awaited adaptation opens with ONLY 38% approval
The horror ‘Mr. Harrigan’ (Mr. Harrigan’s Phone), adapted from the eponymous short story by Stephen King, hits Netflix tomorrow (05),...
![](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/The-Walking-Dead-negan-maggie-1.jpg)
![](https://designerwomen.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/The-Walking-Dead-negan-maggie-1.jpg)
“ The Walking Dead ”: Maggie returns in the teaser for season 10
AMC a teaser of the first of additional episodes of the 10th season of “The Walking Dead”. After years of...